By It is often said that during the Middle Ages there was no production of knowledge, but this approach has its exceptions. Here we tell you about the contributions of scholasticism to medieval thought.
The medieval period seems to be in the distant past and sometimes forgotten. However, recovering its beginnings is beneficial to understand some features of our history and ways of thinking. In this sense, we call scholasticism the period of the Middle Ages that spans from the 9th to the 15th century.
During this phase, Christianity became established as the predominant religion of society. This was the result of religious schools that began to provide specialized training to future priests. Over time, the methods adopted in these schools were systematized in universities, another great creation that occurred during scholasticism. Let us delve into the subject.
What do we call scholasticism?
The term scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus , which means, initially, “wise”, “learned” or “cultured man”. Over time, the word came to designate those teachers who taught the liberal arts of the trivium (grammar, rhetoric and dialectic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music) in monastic schools. Later, it became a method adopted by educators who followed certain philosophical currents .
Scholasticism is generally understood as the thought that emerged and developed during the Middle Ages. During this period, religion, especially Christianity, subjected philosophy and its reflections to understand and sustain its postulates. In fact, this movement is considered to be the philosophical and theological knowledge that was taught in medieval schools.
How does scholasticism arise?
We can speak of a pre-scholastic period, that is, before the emergence of the doctrine at the beginning of the 6th century AD. At this historical moment, the ancient pagan schools were closed by order of the Emperor Justinian. This event marks the decline of polytheistic culture. In its place, the Christian Church and with it Christianity seek to spread their faith throughout society.
To this end, the churches opened new schools that sought to replace the old pagan institutions. These were of three types, depending on the place in which they operated.
All people who professed a faith other than Christianity or who worshipped the ancient gods were considered pagans.
The first of these were monastic schools aimed at training monks in abbeys. Later came episcopal schools, whose teaching was given in cathedrals and aimed at training future priests and providing basic education.
Finally, the Palatine School appeared, attached to the court of the Emperor Charlemagne and directed by the theologian Alcuin of York. This was fundamental in awakening medieval culture. Thus, scholasticism appears at first as the teachings imparted in these schools of religious tones.
Phases of scholasticism
Scholastic ideology can be divided into three phases. The first stage was between the 9th and 11th centuries , a period characterized by reforms within the monastic schools and by an ecclesiastical renewal. The most important representatives during this period were Anselm of Canterbury and Peter Abelard.
The second stage , known as the golden age of scholastic philosophy , dates from the 13th century, when universities flourished. The most distinctive feature of this period is the development and improvement of the scholastic method, taught in the university corporations that were just emerging. The most prominent representative was Thomas Aquinas.
Finally, the third phase can be placed around the 14th century, a time when the Church and the Empire were in a serious crisis. This period is usually considered to be the end of the influence of the spiritual world in all areas of human life: science, politics and religion. The most outstanding representative was William of Ockham, who introduced the separation between faith and reason.
Universities
With the emergence of universities in the 12th and 13th centuries in Bologna and Paris, scholasticism was systematized into a teaching method. These institutions were born as corporate associations between teachers and students.
The fundamental characteristic that it adopts is the relationship between faith and reason. In this regard, philosophy serves as an instrument to interpret the Holy Scriptures. Likewise, the discipline was a very useful tool in the clarification and defense of the faith. The objective pursued with this synthesis was the construction of a systematic doctrine.
Main features of this thought
As we have already mentioned, harmony between faith and reason is the most characteristic feature of scholastic thought. However, it was closely related to teaching and schools.
It was also a period of revival of Aristotle ‘s reflections , thanks to translations made by various philosophers, including Boethius. Consequently, we can summarize the uniqueness of the period of medieval philosophy as follows:
- Primacy of faith over reason: although the relationship between theology and philosophy cannot be denied, it is also true that the latter was subordinate to the former.
- Teaching function: Scholasticism became a systematic method for transmitting knowledge. The procedure, broadly speaking, consisted of reading, commenting on and debating philosophical or theological texts.
- Revealed truth: Philosophy became the privileged instrument for understanding the divine word. This was because the philosophical discipline provides certain logical and argumentative frameworks that allow for clarifying and settling disputes.
- Philosophical tradition: the texts and works that circulated were by Plato , Saint Augustine and Aristotle. The use of the rational principles of these philosophers made it possible to demonstrate that the truths of the Christian faith are not contrary to human reason.
What does the scholastic method propose?
The scholastic method was developed in a special way in the universities of the 12th and 13th centuries. This procedure consisted of two central elements: lectio and quaestio.
Reading or lectio brought the student closer to the science or discipline to be studied through philosophical, theological and legal texts. Initially, the aim was to interpret and comment on the work in question.
Of course, doubts, questions and problems arose from such readings. This was called quaestio , a creative and innovative phase in which even accepted theses could be called into question.
Over time, the quaestios gained a certain autonomy and became quaestio disputata . That is, public debates were organised on a topic of general interest. Then came the quaestiones quodlibetales, in which participants could ask questions of all kinds.
Prominent representatives of scholastic philosophy
The outstanding philosophers of the Middle Ages were, for the most part, theologians. In this sense, their research was focused on providing explanations about the nature of God, faith and religion in general. For this reason, scholasticism is closely related to Christianity, since it reflects on the spiritual beliefs that predominated in the Middle Ages. Below are its most outstanding representatives.
Severinus Boethius (480-524)
It was Severinus Boethius who established a bridge between the Roman world and Christianity, and his figure was therefore key to the emergence of the Middle Ages. His translation of Aristotle’s works contributed to the West’s knowledge of Greek culture. Likewise, his texts allowed this Greek philosopher to be recognized in the Christian world.
John Scotus Eriugena (800-877)
The introduction of philosophy into theological research was led by John Scotus Eriugena. This means that reason became a fundamental tool to explain and clarify the study of religion. In fact, in his work On Predestination , he highlights the irreplaceable role of the intellect.
Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109)
Anselm of Canterbury is known for formulating arguments that seek to prove the existence of God. In his work Monologion he proposes four proofs known as a posteriori , because their starting point is the nature of things. In the same sense, his book Proslogion offers the well-known ontological argument for its a priori character . This means that it starts from the mental idea that we have about God.
Peter Abelard (1079-1142)
Because of the role he gave to reason in understanding fundamental questions about God, Peter Abelard is the most prestigious figure of the 12th century. This medieval philosopher set out to achieve knowledge accessible to human reason and not contrary to the Holy Scriptures. To do so, he established doubt and criticism as his starting point .
Thomas Aquinas (1221-1274)
Roccasecca, Italy, is the birthplace of Thomas Aquinas in 1221. He was considered the greatest representative of scholastic philosophy because his thought sought to be a preparation for faith. In this way, he conceived that both the philosophical discipline and theology helped each other to unravel the mysteries of faith. Among his best-known works are the Summa contra Gentiles , the Summa Theologica and his Scriptum super Sententia s.
William of Ockham (1285-1349)
William of Ockham’s thought caused a rupture between faith and reason, and with this the crisis and end of scholasticism began. His proposal that the truths of faith are neither evident nor probable shows that they are inaccessible to human reason. Of course, this meant a very important shift in the philosophical and theological reflections of other representatives of the Middle Ages.
Historical importance and legacy of scholasticism
Revisiting the historical period of the Middle Ages allows us to understand the origins of university institutions and what happens within them. In this way, we can establish comparisons between the scholastic method and the ways in which information is transmitted in universities. Of course there were changes, but the essence of the method remains: reading, commentary and debate.
This journey also serves to highlight the usefulness of philosophy as a rational and argumentative tool. The philosophers of the medieval period recognized this and made it an ideal medium for thinking and reflecting on topics that seem to be indisputable, such as, for example, the existence of God.